查看完整版本: 集成电路50年发展史：更快更小更低廉

集成电路50年发展史：更快更小更低廉

[color=red]新浪科技讯[/color] [color=darkgreen]北京时间9月13日消息，据美国《连线》杂志报道，[color=blue]1958年，美国德州仪器公司展示了全球第一块集成电路板，这标志着世界从此进入到了集成电路的时代[/color]。集成电路具有体积小、重量轻、寿命长和可靠性高等优点，同时成本也相对低廉，便于进行大规模生产。在近50年的时间里，集成电路已经广泛应用于工业、军事、通讯和遥控等各个领域。用集成电路来装配电子设备，其装配密度相比晶体管可以提高几十倍至几千倍，设备的稳定工作时间也可以大大提高。以下为集成电路50年来的简要发展和应用情况：
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[b]1、第一块集成电路板[/b]
[img]http://i2.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082444.jpg[/img]
第一块集成电路板

几根零乱的电线将五个电子元件连接在一起，就形成了历史上第一个集成电路。虽然它看起来并不美观，但事实证明，其工作效能要比使用离散的部件要高得多。历史上第一个集成电路出自杰克-基尔比之手。当时，晶体管的发明弥补了电子管的不足，但工程师们很快又遇到了新的麻烦。为了制作和使用电子电路，工程师不得不亲自手工组装和连接各种分立元件，如晶体管、二极管、电容器等。很明显，这种做法是不切实际的。于是，基尔比提出了集成电路的设计方案。

[b]2、半导体设备与铅结构模型[/b]
[img]http://i0.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082455.jpg[/img]
半导体设备与铅结构模型

其实，在20世纪50年代，许多工程师都想到了这种集成电路的概念。美国仙童公司联合创始人罗伯特-诺伊斯就是其中之一。在基尔比研制出第一块可使用的集成电路后，诺伊斯提出了一种“半导体设备与铅结构”模型。1960年，仙童公司制造出第一块可以实际使用的单片集成电路。诺伊斯的方案最终成为集成电路大规模生产中的实用技术。基尔比和诺伊斯都被授予“美国国家科学奖章”。他们被公认为集成电路共同发明者。

[b]3、分子电子计算机[/b]
[img]http://i1.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082511.jpg[/img]
分子电子计算机

虽然集成电路优点明显，但仍然有很长时间没有在工业部门得到实际应用。相反，它却首先引起了军事及政府部门的兴趣。1961年，德州仪器为美国空军研发出第一个基于集成电路的计算机，即所谓的“分子电子计算机”。美国宇航局也开始对该技术表示了极大兴趣。当时，“阿波罗导航计算机”和“星际监视探测器”都采用了集成电路技术。

[b]4、集成电路应用于导弹制导系统[/b][b][img]http://i3.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082706.jpg[/img][/b]
集成电路应用于导弹制导系统

1962年，德州仪器为“民兵-I”型和“民兵-II”型导弹制导系统研制22套集成电路。这不仅是集成电路第一次在导弹制导系统中使用，而且是电晶体技术在军事领域的首次运用。到1965年，美国空军已超越美国宇航局，成为世界上最大的集成电路消费者。

[b]5、戈登-摩尔提出摩尔定律[/b]
[img]http://i2.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082718.jpg[/img]
戈登-摩尔提出摩尔定律

英特尔公司的联合创始人之一戈登-摩尔也在集成电路的早期发展进程中扮演着重要的角色。早在1965年，摩尔就曾对集成电路的未来作出预测。他推算，到1975年每块芯片上集成的电子元件数量将达到65000个。而实际上，每过12个月芯片上集成的电子元件数量都会翻一番。这就是现在我们所了解的计算机“摩尔定律”。

[b]6、“Busicom 141-PF”计算机[/b]
[img]http://i2.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082732.jpg[/img]
“Busicom 141-PF”计算机

在20世纪60年代，计算机通常都是笨重的庞然大物。集成电路的出现改变了计算机这一形象。1969年，英特尔公司为日本计算机公司最新研发的“Busicom 141-PF”计算机设计12块芯片。但英特尔公司的工程师泰德-霍夫等人却根据日本公司的需求提出了另一套设计方案。于是诞生了历史上第一个微处理器--4004。

[b]7、英特尔4004微处理器[/b]
[b][img]http://i0.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082743.jpg[/img][/b]
英特尔4004微处理器

随着历史的前进，集成电路早已让路于微处理器。英特尔公司的4004微处理器虽然并不是首个商业化的微处理器，但却是第一个在公开市场上出售的计算机元件。据霍夫介绍，4004微处理器的计算能力其实并不输于世界上第一台计算机ENIAC(电子数字积分计算机)，但却比ENIAC小得多。ENIAC使用了18000个真空管，占据了整个房间。

[b]8、“普尔萨”数字手表[/b]
[img]http://i2.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082758.jpg[/img]
“普尔萨”数字手表

继便携式计算器和数字手表之后，集成电路的下一个主要商业应用也许就是“手腕计算机”。“Microma”液晶数字表是应用“系统芯片”技术的首款产品。汉米尔顿公司推出的“普尔萨”是世界上第一只数字手表。1970年，普尔萨刚刚上市时售价为2100美元。

[b]9、集成电路工艺突飞猛进[/b]
[img]http://i3.sinaimg.cn/IT/ul/2008/0915/U1235P2DT20080915082809.jpg[/img]
集成电路工艺突飞猛进

如今，芯片制造商(如英特尔、AMD等公司)生产的芯片上所集成的晶体管数量已达到了空前的水平，而且每个晶体管的体积变得非常微小。比如，一个针尖上可以容纳3000万个45毫微米大小的晶体管。此外，现在的处理器上单个晶体管的价格仅仅是1968年晶体管价格的百万分之一。(刘妍)

Source: [url]http://tech.sina.com.cn/d/2008-09-15/08312456394.shtml[/url]

Celebrating the IC's 50th anniversary

The technology behind almost every electronics device in the world, the integrated circuit or IC, is celebrating its 50th anniversary on Friday. Its enduring success is thanks in part to two "nice guys" who developed it, and their early efforts to convince an industry that at first reviled their idea.

The two men, Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments (TI) and Robert Noyce , co-founder of Intel but head of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductor when the IC was invented, long lived with the title of "co-inventor" of the integrated circuit.

The IC industry, or chip industry, is now globally closing in on $300 billion a year in revenue, and the information technology industry behind it just wouldn't be what it is without it.

Chips are the brains and nervous system of every electronics device around, from computers to iPhones and are finding their way into more devices all the time, including cars and refrigerators, to make them more energy efficient.

In 1960, computers not even as powerful as a $1,000 PC today still required the space of an entire room and cost $10 million. That all changed due to ICs.

In the 1950s, the electronics industry had just started using transistors, diodes, resistors and other electronic components instead of vacuum tubes, but the new circuitry was still bulky and expensive.

Kilby came up with the idea to combine this circuitry on one chip.

"In 1958, my goals were simple," said Kilby in a lecture given after accepting the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000, "to lower the cost, simplify the assembly and make things smaller and more reliable."

Noyce integrated transistors and other components onto a single piece of silicon to form a chip. Prior to his idea, Fairchild made transistors on silicon, but then cut them out and sold them separately.

The world's first chips were born.

By most accounts, Kilby showed the first working integrated circuit to TI executives on Sept. 12, 1958, the reason today is viewed as the 50th anniversary.

But Noyce and other researchers at Fairchild Semiconductor, including Intel's other co-founder, Gordon Moore, had been working on their own concepts and showed off their integrated circuit shortly thereafter.

Moore has argued that Noyce's IC was more practical and easier to manufacture than Kilby's original.

In any case, their invention could easily have been destroyed by patent battles and fighting over who would get credit for the IC and potentially lucrative royalties.

At first, it looked as though that might happen.

Kilby filed for his patent first but Noyce's application went through faster, so he won the first patent for the IC. Soon after, a review board awarded the patent to Kilby on the basis of dates and notes in his research notebook. But after a decade-long court battle, Fairchild's lawyers won the patent back for Noyce.

But the court room drama was in the background of a wider debate about the best way to produce and manufacture electronics circuitry. The idea for the IC was attacked by other researchers at the time, according to Kilby.

Some researchers believed the IC would be difficult to produce. Others criticized the technology for not using the best materials available for electronics circuitry. Finally, some feared the IC would put circuit designers around the world out of a job.

Kilby, Noyce, Moore and other proponents of the IC became swept up in defending the new technology and spreading the gospel about its potential uses and efficiencies.

Their companies, TI and Fairchild, settled their differences quickly with cross-licenses and started using ICs in products such as the handheld TI calculators that came out in 1964.

That kind of cooperation doesn't happen often where credit for an invention and royalties are concerned.

Many accounts of Kilby and Noyce describe them as genuinely nice guys, sometimes to the chagrin of their colleagues.

In his Nobel lecture in 2000, Kilby noted Noyce's work in the invention of the semiconductor as well as that of "several" unnamed researchers at Westinghouse Electric Corporation.

Noyce might have been a part of the prize had he not died 10 years earlier. Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously.

Kilby also credits the U.S. military and space program with the final say in the future of the IC because its use in major government projects proved its effectiveness.

The U.S. military used ICs in the Minuteman Missiles built to answer a nuclear attack by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, while NASA used ICs in the Apollo moon mission.

There are many other people vital to the creation of the modern chip, including transistor inventors William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from Bell Laboratories, who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics, as well as Leo Esaki, a semiconductor researcher at the company that later became known as Sony, who shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 for work on the tunneling properties of electrons. Esaki also worked at IBM.

Today, the IC is responsible for innovations in technology that have continued to make gadgets smaller, more powerful and less expensive so that device makers can keep up with people's appetite for gadgets such as mobile phones with touch screens that can also compute, play music and take pictures, all for less than $200.

Looking back over how the IC and the electronics industry have developed since 1958, Kilby quoted a fellow Nobel Prize winner in his lecture, saying: "It's like the beaver told the rabbit as they stared at Hoover Dam. 'No, I didn't build it myself. But it's based on an idea of mine.'"

Source: InfoWorld

More information, pl via:

[url]http://www.wired.com/gadgets/miscellaneous/multimedia/2008/09/gallery_integrated_circuit[/url]

[url]http://www.daylife.com/article/08jd9xKe7g3ae[/url]

[quote]
……
一个针尖上可以容纳3000万个45毫微米大小的晶体管
……
[/quote]
换算一下，3千万个45 nm(毫微米)大小是多大: 3*10^7*45*10^-9 = 1.35 m (米)，这是什么针啊！

回复 4# 的帖子

;P :L :thx

回复 4# 的帖子

:lol 这个针确实有点特殊 :hot1

原文如下：
Today, chip manufacturers like Intel and AMD can cram unprecedented numbers of transistors into multicore chips. Current 45-nanometer transistors are so small you can fit about 30 million of them on the head of a pin. What's more, the price of an individual transistor in today's processors is about a millionth the average price of a transistor in 1968, lending credence to Gordon Moore's famous quip: "If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get a half a million miles per gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it."

[url]http://www.wired.com/gadgets/miscellaneous/multimedia/2008/09/gallery_integrated_circuit[/url]